Zainal Arifin, Singgih Dwi Prasetyo, Yuki Trisnoaji, Mohd Afzanizam Mohd Rosli
The urgency for global decarbonization emphasizes the need for sustainable energy solutions to support the growth of electric vehicles (EVs). This study evaluates the techno-economic and environmental feasibility of an on-grid hybrid photovoltaic–biogas system for Electric Vehicle Charging Stations (EVCS) in Surakarta, Indonesia. A meta-analysis of 50 studies from 2023 to 2025 was conducted, revealing that hybrid PV–biogas–EV systems achieve an average Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) of USD 0.098/kWh, with emissions reductions ranging from 63.82 % to 100 %. Simulation results indicated that the on-grid configuration produced 977.68 MWh annually, with a Net Present Cost (NPC) of approximately USD 0.85 million and an LCOE of about USD 0.03/kWh, outperforming the off-grid alternative. The on-grid system demonstrated an Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 35.5 % and a Return on Investment (ROI) of 28.2 %. Additionally, the annual carbon emissions were significantly reduced to 454,362 kg CO₂ compared to conventional diesel systems. Overall, integrating PV–biogas energy into EVCS presents a reliable, economically competitive, and sustainable model to accelerate the clean energy transition in tropical regions. © 2026 The Authors
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta, 57126, Indonesia; Power Plant Engineering Technology, State University of Malang, Malang, 65145, Indonesia; Department of Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Technology and Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Melaka, 76110, Malaysia
