Uun Yanuhar, Heru Suryanto, Veryl Hasan, Fajar Nusantara, Joseph Selvi Binoj, Defa Rizqi Machfuda, Bright Brailson Mansingh, Januar Parlaungan Siregar, Aisha Surya Ananda, Komarudin Komarudin
Green synthesis using microalgae is a sustainable process to produce a metal oxide nanomaterial. This study aims to synthesize ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO-NP) using Chlorella vulgaris and compare the physicochemical characteristics and toxicity responses in Artemia salina . The synthesis method was conducted by extracting C.vulgaris using ethanol, then reacting it with zinc acetate dihydrate, subsequently calcining it at 400 °C for 2 h. Physicochemical properties of ZnO-NP were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray, UV–Visible spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. In addition, the toxicity was assessed using A.salina as a bioassay model. UV–Visible spectroscopy revealed the highest absorption at peak of ∼300 nm, representing a significant blue-shift compared to the typical 370–400 nm range for ZnO-NP, while energy-dispersive X-ray confirmed the Zn element with a signal at 1.2 keV. All ZnO-NP exhibited a spherical morphology. The algal-mediated ZnO-NP had the smallest crystallite size (40.5 ± 13.5 nm) and particle size of 57 ± 13 nm, followed by the sol–gel sample (45.4 ± 2.9 nm; 54 ± 10.8 nm) and the commercial ZnO-NP (57.7 ± 3.9 nm; 50 ± 7.5 nm). The algal-mediated ZnO-NP exhibited the highest LC₅₀ (132.56 ppm), suggesting lower acute toxicity compared to the sol–gel (123.89 ppm) and commercial (130.42 ppm) counterparts. However, the differences among LC₅₀ values were not statistically significant ( p > 0.05). These findings suggest that the C. vulgaris -mediated synthesis route produces smaller ZnO-NP that display a clear time-dependent toxicological response toward A.salina . Copyright © 2025. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Brawijaya University, Jl. Veteran Malang, East Java, Indonesia; Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Universitas Negeri Malang, Jl. Semarang 5, Malang, East Java, Indonesia; Faculty of Fisheries, Airlangga University, Jl. Dharmahusada Permai, Mulyorejo, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia; Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Alasala Colleges, Eastern Province, Dammam, 31483, Saudi Arabia; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College, Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore, 641022, India; Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah, Pekan, 26600, Malaysia; Faculty of Veterinary, Brawijaya University, Jl Puncak Dieng, Malang, East Java, Indonesia
