Khoiriyah, Punaji Setyosari, Dedi Kuswandi, Nunung Suryati, Teguh Arie Sandy
Despite the proliferation of online learning environments, limited empirical evidence exists regarding the combined effects of instructional strategies and learner characteristics on higher-order cognitive skills in digital contexts. This quasi-experimental study investigated whether Reciprocal Online Teaching (ROT) and online self-efficacy influence metacognitive skills and critical reading skills among English language learners. We employed a 2×2 factorial design with 64 second-year university students from an English Education Program in Indonesia, randomly assigned to ROT (n=32) or Reciprocal Offline Teaching (n=32) conditions, further stratified by online self-efficacy levels (high/low) measured using Zimmerman and Kulikowich's validated instrument. Metacognitive skills were assessed using Schraw and Dennison's 34-item Metacognitive Skills Inventory (Cronbach's α=0.966), while critical reading skills were measured through researcher-developed multiple-choice tests administered pre- and post-intervention. Multivariate Analysis of Variance revealed that ROT significantly enhanced both metacognitive skills (F=7.315, p=0.009) and critical reading skills (F=12.292, p=0.001) compared to offline instruction. Online self-efficacy demonstrated substantial main effects on metacognitive skills (F=115.378, p<0.001) and critical reading skills (F=4.144, p=0.046), with high self-efficacy students outperforming their low self-efficacy peers across conditions. Notably, no significant interaction emerged between instructional strategy and self-efficacy (p>0.05 for both outcomes), suggesting independent rather than synergistic effects. These findings contribute empirical evidence that ROT's structured collaborative activities effectively cultivate cognitive self-regulation in online environments, while self-efficacy beliefs independently predict skill development regardless of pedagogical approach. For practitioners, results suggest dual intervention pathways: implementing ROT to leverage peer interaction and explicitly fostering online self-efficacy through mastery experiences and social persuasion in digital learning ecosystems. Copyright (c) 2026 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Universitas Negeri Malang, Malang, Indonesia; Ahli Media Consultant, Malang, Indonesia
